Current Perspectives on Stem Cell Technology in Regenerative Medicine

   

Kasarla Rajeswar Reddy^*

Citation: Reddy KR. Current Perspectives on Stem Cell Technology in Regenerative Medicine. Genesis J Microbiol Immunol.1(1):1-20.

Received: March 01,  2025 | Published: March 15,  2025

Copyright^© 2025 by Reddy KR. All rights reserved. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Abstract

Stem cell technology has emerged as a cornerstone of regenerative medicine, offering transformative approaches for the repair, replacement, and regeneration of damaged tissues and organs. This review provides a comprehensive overview of stem cell biology, focusing on the classification, sources, and fundamental properties of stem cells, including embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells. Current methodologies for stem cell isolation, expansion, differentiation, and delivery are discussed, along with advances in biomaterials, tissue engineering, and gene-editing technologies that enhance therapeutic potential. The clinical applications of stem cell-based therapies in areas such as cardiovascular disease, neurodegenerative disorders, musculoskeletal injuries, and metabolic diseases are critically examined. Additionally, the review addresses key challenges limiting clinical translation, including ethical considerations, immunogenicity, tumorigenicity, and regulatory constraints. By summarizing recent progress and ongoing limitations, this article aims to provide a concise yet comprehensive perspective on the role of stem cell technology in regenerative medicine and its future prospects in clinical practice.

Keywords

CRISR-Cas9; Induced pluripotent stem cells; Regenerative medicine; Stem cell therapy; Somatic cell nuclear transfer; Tissue engineering.

Introduction

Stem cell technology is the core of regenerative medicine, a field aiming to repair, regenerate replace, regenerate or rejuvenate damaged or diseased cells, organs, and tissues to restore normal function. Stem cells, with their unique abilities to self-renew and differentiate into specialized cell types, are used in tissue engineering, cell transplantation, and the development of artificial organs. Applications include treating conditions like heart disease, neurodegenerative disorders, and severe burns by introducing or guiding specialized stem cells to repair injured areas. Human body is formed by 220 stem cell lines, each with unique function. Most become dormant after initial development. Most become dormant after initial development, but stem cell technology and regenerative medicine can i) Repair: fix damaged tissues and restore normal function, ii) Regenerate: grow new healthy cells to replace damaged ones, iii) Replace: substitute old, worn-out cells with fresh ones, and iv) Rejuvenate: restore youthful vitality and energy [1,2].

A stem cell is a blank cell/ precursor cell that has the ability to continuously divide and differentiate (develop) into various other kind(s) of cells/tissues such as a skin, muscle, or nerve cell etc. Stem cells are un-differentiated/ un-specialized/ un-programmed biological cells that are thought to be able to reproduce themselves indefinitely and, under the right conditions to develop into a wide variety of mature cells with specialized functions. They can divide either asymmetrically or mitotically to produce more stem cells. They are found in multicellular organisms (Figure 1). Stem cells possess potential uses in basic research, for clarification of complex events that occur during human development and understanding molecular basis of cancer, molecular mechanisms for gene control, and to provide specific cell types (pluripotent stem cells) to test new drugs, and to reduce animal testing [3].

Figure 1: Stem cells can replicate and differentiate into many cell types (Courrtesy: VBB Gentek: stem cell types and stem cell therapy).

Regenerative medicine is the broad field focused on repairing, restoring or replacing, or regenerating cells, tissues and organs, to restore normal function. It includes tissue engineering as a method to build tissues externally, and various strategies, including using stem cells, gene therapy, and cell-based therapies to promote the body's natural healing processes internally [4].  Tissue engineering is a specific discipline within regenerative medicine that focuses on growing tissues and organs outside the body. It combines cells (like stem cells), scaffolds (structures to grow cells on), and growth factors to create functional biological tissues. The goal is to replace or restore damaged tissues and organs that can then be implanted into the body [5]. Stem cell therapy is a type of cell-based regenerative medicine that uses stem cells or their derivatives to promote the repair of damaged or diseased tissues. Stem cells, which can differentiate into specialized cell types, are introduced into the damaged area to help the body heal. The key difference from tissue engineering is that stem cell therapy often works by stimulating the body's innate healing mechanisms rather than by building new tissue from scratch outside the body [2]. In summary, regenerative medicine is the field, tissue engineering is a method within it that involves creating new tissues, and stem cell therapy is another method that uses the body's own cells to initiate healing. 

Stem Cell Therapy

Stem cell therapy is a regenerative treatment that uses the body’s own healing cells to promote healing or to repair and restore damaged tissues or diseased organs. Stem cell therapy is introduction of new adult stem cells into damaged tissue in order to treat diseases or injury aiming to regenerate cells (tissue regeneration) to treat various types of tissue damage. These powerful cells can reduce inflammation, support tissue regeneration, and promote natural healing. Also known as regenerative medicine, it aims to replace or regenerate cells, tissues, and organs to treat conditions like cancer, cardiovascular disease, and neurodegenerative disorders. It is commonly used for joint pain, injury recovery, autoimmune conditions, and overall cellular rejuvenation. Any disease in which there is tissue degeneration can be a potential candidate for stem cell therapy: Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, spinal cord injury, heart disease, severe burns, and diabetes. Stem cells could be used to repair or replace damaged neurons (regenerate spinal cord), repair of damaged organs such as the liver and pancreas [2,4].

Stem cells are sourced (cell sourcing) from various places, including embryonic blastocysts, adult tissues (like bone marrow or fat), umbilical cord blood, and reprogrammed adult cells (iPSCs). Researchers grow these cells in a laboratory (cell cultivation) to produce large quantities for transplantation. Stem cells are then guided to differentiate into specific, functional cell types, such as heart muscle cells, neurons, or blood cells. The specialized cells are implanted (cell implantation) into the patient's damaged or diseased tissue to encourage repair and restoration of function. The transplanted cells need to survive, multiply, and integrate into the host's tissue (tissue integration), receiving nutrients and signaling molecules from the circulatory system to fully participate in regeneration. When stem cells are transplanted into the body and arrive into the injured part, the stem cells come in contact with growth chemicals like EGFs, NGFs and HGFs in the body. These chemicals program the stem cells to differentiate in to the tissue surrounding it [6-8].

Epidermal growth factor (EGF) is a single polypeptide of 53 amino acid residues which is involved in the regulation of cell proliferation. EGF exerts its effects in the target cells by binding to the plasma membrane located protein EGF tyrosine receptor. The EGF receptor is a kinase. Nerve growth factor (NGF) is a neurotrophic factor and neuropeptide primarily involved in the regulation of growth, maintenance, proliferation, and survival of certain target neurons. Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a mesenchyme-derived pleiotropic factor which regulates cell growth, cell motility, and morphogenesis of various types of cells, and is thus considered a humoral mediator of epithelial-mesenchymal interactions responsible for morphogenic tissue interactions during embryonic development [9,10].

In 1968, human adult stem cells were used in the first successful bone marrow transplant. The process includes irradiating the bone marrow to destroy the faulty stem cells (often causing cancer) and replacing them with normal bone marrow stem cells from a healthy and immune compatible donor. Restoration of blood-forming stem cells after chemotherapy or radiation, a process known as hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is a well-established application in blood and immune disorders. Stem cell transplantation (SCT) is the term now used in preference to bone marrow transplantation (BMT). Today, bone marrow is transplanted routinely to treat a variety of blood and bone marrow diseases, blood cancers, and immune disorders [11].

In 1968, human adult stem cells were used in the first successful bone marrow transplant. The process includes irradiating the bone marrow to destroy the faulty stem cells (often causing cancer) and replacing them with normal bone marrow stem cells from a healthy and immune compatible donor. Restoration of blood-forming stem cells after chemotherapy or radiation, a process known as hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is a well-established application in blood and immune disorders. Stem cell transplantation (SCT) is the term now used in preference to bone marrow transplantation (BMT). Today, bone marrow is transplanted routinely to treat a variety of blood and bone marrow diseases, blood cancers, and immune disorders [11].

Stem cell technology finds applications in regenerative medicine: [12]

• Cardiac regeneration: Repairing heart muscle after a heart attack. 
• Neurological conditions: Replacing damaged neurons in the brain or spinal cord for conditions like Parkinson's, Alzheimer's, and spinal cord injury. 
• Diabetes: Providing new pancreatic cells to restore insulin production. 
• Wound healing: Promoting the regeneration of skin tissue in severe burn victims. 
• Oral regeneration: Regenerating tissues and structures within the mouth. 

Stem cell tracking in vivo (in a living organism) uses imaging techniques like optical imaging, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computed tomography (CT) to monitor the location, distribution, and behavior of transplanted cells. Methods involve direct labeling with tracers or indirect methods using reporter genes. Key techniques include bioluminescence and fluorescence for optical tracking, magnetic resonance imaging for high-resolution soft tissue imaging, and computed tomography for tracking with nanoparticles [13].

Stem Cell Niche

A stem cell "niche" is a specialized microenvironment, both anatomical and functional, that provides the specific signals and support for a stem cell to maintain its identity, regulate its self-renewal, and decide whether to differentiate into new cells. Anatomical location is a specific site within the body where stem cells reside, such as the bone marrow for hematopoietic stem cells. Microenvironment is acomplex network of various components that interact to regulate stem cell behavior. The niche includes cell-to-cell interactions (stromal cells and other neighboring differentiated cells), soluble growth factors (cytokines and hormones secreted by niche cells), the extracellular matrix (proteins and other molecules that provide structural support and signaling cues), and even physical factors like oxygen tension, pH, tissue stiffness, and shear stress. In stem cell therapy, understanding and manipulating the niche offers a powerful strategy to enhance stem cell function for tissue repair, by either modifying the in vivo microenvironment or creating artificial, supportive niches in vitro for transplantation [14].

The stem cell "niche" plays an important role in stem cell therapy by enhancing endogenous healing, improving in vivo function to create artificial in vitro niches in the lab. The stem cell "niche" plays important role in stem cell function by: 

1. Maintaining quiescence: The niche keeps adult stem cells in a dormant state to prevent exhaustion,
2. Regulating self-renewal: It controls the balance between a stem cell dividing to produce another stem cell (self-renewal) and differentiating into a progenitor cell. 
3. Controlling differentiation: The niche provides signals that direct stem cells to become specific cell types, crucial for tissue development and repair,
4. Tissue homeostasis: Niches maintain the normal function of tissues by ensuring a consistent supply of stem cells and their progeny [15].

Scaffolds In Stem Cell Based Tissue Engineering 

In stem cell-based tissue engineering, scaffolds serve as a temporary, three-dimensional (3D) structure that mimics the extracellular matrix to guide stem cell growth and organization. They provide mechanical support, facilitate nutrient and waste exchange, and offer a surface for cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation, ultimately creating new tissue-like structures for repair and regeneration. Scaffolds can also deliver growth factors, drugs, or genes to control the stem cell environment, promoting the development of specific tissues. Scaffolds are used in a variety of tissue engineering applications, including the repair of bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments, as well as the regeneration of heart valves and other organs [16,17].

Crispr-Cas9 technology enhance stem cell based regenerative medicine

CRISPR-Cas9 enhances stem cell-based regenerative medicine by enabling precise and efficient genetic modification of stem cells to correct disease-causing mutations, model diseases, or enhance therapeutic properties. It allows for the targeted insertion or deletion of genes, creating genetically engineered stem cells with improved function, reduced immunogenicity, or increased disease resistance, paving the way for novel cell-based therapies. CRISPR-Cas9 is more efficient and specific than older gene-editing technologies, leading to more accurate edits with fewer off-target effects [18].

CRISPR-Cas9 is used to engineer mesenchymal stem cells by generating B2M-knockout mesenchymal stem cells to reduce T-cell differentiation, thereby improving their survival and immunomodulatory effects. CRISPR-Cas9 can create disease models of Parkinson's disease in stem cells, helping researchers understand the disease's progression and develop new treatments. In ex vivo gene-edited cell therapy, hematopoietic stem cells are extracted, corrected using CRISPR, and then reinfused into the patient [18,19].

Stem cell characteristics

Three unique properties of stem cells are i) Self-renewable: Stem cells are capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods, ii) Pluripotent: A stem cell is ‘uncommitted’ until it receives a signal to develop into a specialized cell. Stem cells are unspecialized (blank cells) and can develop into several different kinds of specialized cells/tissues, iii) Repair: ability to return to function to damaged cells in the living organism/animal [1-3].

Self-renewal (Regeneration)is the ability of a stem cell to divide and produce copies of itself for an indefinite period of time. The stem cells are capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods, whereas somatic cells from adult organs can multiply themselves for a limited number of times.  Eventually every adult somatic cell will age and lose its ability to function at peak efficiency, and undergo apoptosis. At this point the dying cell will be replaced from a new cell generated from a local stem cell. When cells replicate themselves many times, it is called proliferation. The stem cells that proliferate for many months in the laboratory can yield millions of cells (Figure 1) [20,21].

Stem cells are defined as unspecialized cells that can renew themselves and differentiate into specialized cell types. A stem cell does not have any tissue-specific structures that allow it to perform specialized functions. A stem cell cannot work with its neighbors to pump blood through the body like a heart muscle cell. It cannot carry molecules of oxygen through the bloodstream like RBC. It cannot fire electrochemical signals to other cells that allow the body to move like a nerve cell [20,21].

Stem cells can give rise to specialized cells. When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential to either remain a stem cell or become another type of cell with a more specialized function i.e. muscle cell, RBC, nerve cell etc. (Figure 1). Stem cells have the ability to divide asymmetrically to produce a differentiate cell and a stem cell. When unspecialized stem cells give rise to specialized cells, the process is called differentiation, in response to external and internal signals. Internal signals are controlled by a cell's genes. External signals include chemicals secreted by other cells (such as growth factors, cytokines), physical contact with neighboring cells, and certain molecules in the microenvironment. Differentiation is the process by which stem cells become specialized to perform particular tasks.Reconstruction of diseased or injured tissue by activation of resident cells or by cell transplantation is known as regenerative medicine. Self-renewal maintains the stem cell pool, whereas differentiation replaces dead or damaged cells throughout life [1,2,20-22].

In embryos, stem cells function to generate new organs and tissues. In adults, they function to replace cells during the natural course of cell turnover. A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that develops into a variety of specialized cell types. A stem cell divides and gives rise to one additional stem cell and a specialized celle.g., a hematopoietic stem cell undergoing cell division give rise to a stem cell and a blood cell. A progenitor (precursor) cell is unspecialized that is capable of undergoing cell division and yielding two specialized cells e.g., a myeloid progenitor/precursor cell undergoing cell division to yield two specialized cells (a neutrophil and a red blood cell) (Table 1 and Figure 2) [23].

Figure 2: Comparision of aprogenitor (precursor) cell and a stem cell [23].

 

Stem cells	Progenitor cells
A stem cell is an unspecialized cell that develops into a variety of specialized cell types	A progenitor is unspecialized that is capable of undergoing cell division and yielding two specialized cells
A stem cell divides and give rise to one additional stem cell and a specialized cell	A progenitor cell divides and gives rise to two specialized cells
e.g., a hematopoietic stem cell produces a second-generation stem cell and a neuron.	e.g., a myeloid progenitor cell undergoing cell division to yield two specialized cells (a neutrophil and a red blood cell)

Classification of stem cells

Adult humans consist of more than 200 kinds of cells. They are nerve cells (neurons), muscle cells (myocytes), skin (epithelial) cells, blood cells (RBC, WBC, platelets), bone cells (osteocytes), and cartilage cells (chondrocytes). Cells essential for embryonic development but not incorporated into the body of embryo, include the extra-embryonic tissues, placenta, umbilical cord. All of these cells are generated from a single, totipotent cell, the zygote, or fertilized egg. The potency of a stem cell is defined by the types of more differentiated cells that the stem cell can make. Based on level of differentiation, stem cells are classified into totipotent, pluripotent multipotent oligopotent, and unipotent. Based on source of origin, stem cells are classified into embryonic stem cells and adult stem cells. Embryonic type stem cells include embryonic stem cells and embryonic germ cells, and adult type stem cells include umbilical cord stem cells, placental stem cells, and adult stem cells [27,28]. 

Figure 4: Lineage restriction of human developmental potency [28].

Totipotent stem cells are present in zygote up to morula stage during embryonic development. The fertilized egg is said to be totipotent from the Latin totus, meaning “entire”, a cell capable to form all lineages of the entire organism. Totipotent stem cells are the most potent type of stem cell, possessing the unique ability to differentiate into every cell type of an entire organism, including all the cells of the body (embryonic tissues) and the supporting tissues required for development, such as the placenta and fetal membranes (extraembryonic tissues). Found only in the earliest stages of embryonic development, such as the zygote and early blastomeres, these cells represent the highest level of developmental potential before cells begin to specialize. Thus, it has the potential to generate all types of cells and tissues that make up an embryo and placenta, which supports embryonic development in utero.In mammals, only the zygote is totipotent (Figure 4) [28,29].

Pluripotent stem cells (“Pluri” Latin; plures means several or many) are descendants of totipotent stem cells of embryo, develop about four days after fertilization, and can differentiate into any cell type, except for totipotent stem cells and placenta. Pluripotent stem cells only make cells of the embryo proper can make all cells of the embryo (germ cells, cells from any of the germ layers). These cells cannot re-create a complete organism but differentiate to a large number of mature tissue types capable to form all the embryo lineages including germ cells, and some or even all extra-embryonic cell types, for example, brain and muscle. Like embryonic stem cells, these can differentiate into virtually any cell type in the body, offering broad therapeutic potential. An embryo begins as a single, unfertilized egg that divides to form a blastocyst. The blastocyst is made up of embryonic stem cells, which can differentiate into all cells, such as brain, heart, liver and lung cells [28,30].

Pluripotent stem cells are unspecialized cells with the ability to divide indefinitely (self-renew) and differentiate into all cell types of the body, but not extra-embryonic tissues like the placenta. The two main types are embryonic stem cells (ESCs), derived from early embryos, and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), generated by reprogramming adult cells back to a pluripotent state. These cells are valuable for studying development, drug testing, and developing cell-based therapies for various diseases. Pluripotent stem cells can divide and create more identical cells for long periods in a lab setting. They have the capacity to develop into any of the three primary germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm), which then give rise to all the specialized cells of the adult body, such as nerve cells, heart muscle cells, and blood cells [28-31].

Multipotent stem cells are descendants of pluripotent stem cells and antecedents of specialized cells in particular tissues, located in every organ of human body. They can differentiate into multiple specialized cells of a closely related family of cells; able form multiple mature cell types that constitute an entire tissue or tissues. Found in adult organisms and certain tissues like bone marrow, they play crucial roles in tissue repair, regeneration, and homeostasis. They are often found in adult tissues and are considered adult stem cells, but they can also be isolated from other sources like amniotic fluid [28,32]. 

Multipotent stem cells have a narrower spectrum of differentiation than PSCs, but they can specialize in discrete cells of specific cell lineages. Multipotent stem cells only make cells within a given germ layer. Multipotent stem cells are undifferentiated, self-renewing cells with the ability to develop into a limited range of specific cell types, typically within a single tissue or lineage or embryonic layer in particular. For example, hematopoietic stem cells (also known as blood stem cell), which are found primarily in the bone marrow, give rise to all of the cells found in the blood, including RBCs, WBCs, and platelets (Figure 33.9). Mesenchymal stem cells are found in multiple tissues, including bone marrow, adipose tissue, and umbilical cord blood, and can differentiate into bone cells (osteoblasts), cartilage cells (chondrocytes), fat cells (adipocytes), and myocytes (muscle cells). Neural stem cells are found in the brain, involved in tissue repair and can differentiate into various cell types of the nervous system like neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes [28,33].

Multipotent stem cells from a mesodermal tissue like the blood can make all the cells of the blood, but cannot make cells of a different germ layer such as neural cells (ectoderm) or liver cells (endoderm). Their ability to regenerate specific tissues makes them valuable for cell-based therapies in treating diseases and injuries, as well as in tissue engineering. Therapeutic potential of multipotent stem cells includes hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, commonly known as bone marrow transplantation, has been used for decades to treat patients with blood-related disorders, such as leukemia, lymphoma, and certain genetic disorders and regenerative medicine [28,3,33].

Oligopotent stem cells are a type of progenitor cell that can differentiate into a limited number of closely related distinct cell types within a particular lineage e.g., lymphoid cells,but have less differentiation potential than multipotent stem cells. These cells are important for tissue maintenance and repair and have therapeutic potential in regenerative medicine, such as in the generation of specific blood cells from myeloid and lymphoid progenitor cells [27,28].

Unipotent stem cells (‘Uni’ is derived from Latin word unus, means one) are characterized by the narrowest differentiation capabilities and a special property of dividing repeatedly. Their feature makes them a promising candidate for therapeutic use in regenerative medicine. Unipotent (or progenitor) stem cells are a type of adult stem cell that can differentiate into only one specific type of cell i.e., makes cells of a single cell type e.g., dermatocytes. They are characterized by their limited differentiation potential but possess the crucial ability to self-renew, producing more of their own cell type. Unipotent stem cells are located within specific organs or tissues where they maintain the cell population. An example is a germ cell stem cell that makes the cells that mature to become egg or sperm, but not other cell types. Similarly, erythroid progenitor cells differentiate into only RBCs [27,28].

Unipotent stem cell is a term that is usually applied to a cell in adult organisms, means that the cells in question are capable of differentiating along only one lineage (produce single specific cell type only), but have the property of self-renewal which distinguishes them from non-stem cells e.g., muscle stem cells, cardiac stem cells, epithelial stem cells. In other words, unipotent stem cells are lineage committed precursor cells (Table 2).Examples include epidermal stem cells found in the skin and can only differentiate into new skin cells, spermatogonia stem cells found in male testes, responsible for producing sperm cells, myoblasts are unipotent cells in muscle tissue that can only form new muscle cells, and cardiomyocytes found In the heart, that only produce more heart muscle cells [27,28]. 

Unipotent stem cells play a crucial role in maintaining bodily functions by constantly replenishing specialized cells. They are essential for the continuous ongoing regeneration and repair processes in tissues that require a steady supply of a particular cell type [27,28].

Totipotent	Pluripotent	Multipotent	Unipotent
Cells from early embryo	Cells from blastocyst	Fetal tissue, cord blood and adult stem cell	Adult cells
Able to become whole individual including extraembryonic structures i.e., placenta	Can become any type of tissue in the body excluding a placenta	Produce only cells of closely related family of cells	Can produce only one cell type
e.g., 8-16 day old cell embryo	Inner cell mass, iPSC	Mesenchymal stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells	Muscle stem cells, spermatogonial stem cells (SSC)

Sources of stem cells 

Stem cells may be derived from autologous, allogeneic or xenogeneic sources. Histocompatibility is prerequisite for transplantation of allogeneic stem cells. Fetal tissue is the best current tissue source for human neural stem cells; however ethical issues are a major concern. Potential sources of stem cells include fetal tissue that becomes available after an abortion, placental tissue, excess embryos from assisted reproductive technologies such as commonly used in fertility clinics, embryos created through in vitro fertilization specifically for research purpose, from umbilical cord blood, and bone marrow. In addition, neural stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells and mesenchymal stem cells can be harvested From Fetal Blood and Fetal Tissue [59,60].

Conclusion

Stem cell technology has significantly advanced the field of regenerative medicine, offering promising strategies for the restoration and functional repair of damaged tissues and organs. As discussed in this review, various stem cell types, including embryonic stem cells, adult stem cells, and induced pluripotent stem cells, possess unique biological properties that make them valuable for therapeutic applications. Progress in stem cell isolation, differentiation, tissue engineering, and gene-editing technologies has expanded the scope of regenerative therapies and accelerated their transition toward clinical use.

Despite these advances, several challenges remain, including ethical concerns, immune rejection, tumorigenic potential, scalability, and stringent regulatory requirements. Addressing these limitations through improved safety profiling, standardized protocols, and interdisciplinary collaboration will be essential for successful clinical translation. Continued research and carefully designed clinical trials are expected to further refine stem cell-based therapies and improve their efficacy and safety. Overall, stem cell technology holds immense potential to reshape regenerative medicine, offering innovative solutions for previously incurable diseases and paving the way toward personalized and regenerative healthcare.

Availability of data and materials

Since this is a review article, the issue of raw data may not arise. However, raw data will be available on request.

Competeing interest

The author declares that they have no competing interest.

Funding

Nil

Author’s contribution

The author was solely responsible for study design, literature review, data collection, data analysis and manuscript writing.

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